Glossary – Australian National Standards 3.0

The terms defined here are specific to the National Standards and pertain to Australian conditions and species.

An effort has been made to ensure generic terms defined here are consistent with those of the SER Standards (Gann et al. 2026) while others are defined in a way that pertains more specifically to Australian contexts, conditions and species.

Abiotic non-living materials and conditions within a given ecosystem, including soil, rock, dead wood, litter or aqueous substrate, the atmosphere, weather and climate, topographic relief and aspect, the nutrient regime, hydrological regime, fire regime and salinity regime.

Adaptive management a sophisticated form of ‘trial and error’. Using the best currently available knowledge, skills and technology an action is implemented and outcomes recorded including success, failures and potential for improvement. These learnings form the basis of the next round of decision making and trialling in a process of continuous improvement.

Approach (to return of biota) the particular restoration strategy adopted for returning biota to a site or subsite, matched to the degree to which the capacity for natural regeneration of biota on that site or subsite is intact, has been reduced, or is entirely absent. Approaches named in these standards include spontaneous natural regeneration, facilitated natural regeneration, combined regeneration/reintroduction or full reintroduction.

Assisted regeneration (see Facilitated regeneration).

Attributes (of an ecosystem) the biotic and abiotic properties and functions of an ecosystem (In this document referred to as including absence of threats, physical conditions, species composition, community structure, ecosystem function and external exchanges).

Barriers (to recovery) factors impeding recovery of an ecosystem attribute.

Biological resistance the processes, largely derived from evolutionary adaptations that enable components across bio-logical levels to resist or recover from perturbations (sensu Thorogood et al. 2023). This is expressed at the individual organism level as resistance adaptations (such as thick bark, hard coatings of seeds or eggs that protect buds, embryos and other reproductive parts) and recovery adaptations (such as responsiveness to cues for hatching, germination, resprouting, enhanced flowering, and adaptations that enhance propagule dispersal, e.g. winged or floating seeds, fleshy fruits, floating fragments).

Biotic, biota the living components of an ecosystem, including living animals and plants, fungi, bacteria and other forms of life (microscopic to large).

Carbon sequestration the capture and long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide (typically in biomass by way of photosynthesis and tree growth) to reduce the impacts of climate change.

Climate envelope the climatic range in which a species currently exists. With climate change,such envelopes are predicted to shift towards the poles or higher elevations.However, as precipitation is likely to change in less predictable ways, the displacement of climate envelopes will be more complex and difficult to predict.

Combined regeneration/reintroduction an approach to restoration that includes a degree of reintroduction of biota alongside natural regeneration and/or facilitated regeneration interventions, falling short of full reconstruction. Examples of this approach include the globally promoted Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) methodology that includes some degree of reintroduction alongside facilitated regeneration and the practice of Rewilding that includes both regeneration and reintroduction approaches.

Community structure the physical organisation of biotic and abiotic elements in a community. This refers to the degree of layering and spatial patchiness in an ecosystem; whether of substrates (e.g. rocks, coral or shell reefs, woody debris) or organisms (e.g. trees, shrubs, ground layer vegetation) as well as trophic complexity (i.e. food webs). This enables the development of complexity of habitats and functions.

Composition (of an ecosystem) the array and relative proportion of organisms within an ecosystem.

Construction creating an ecosystem , through a full reintroduction approach, where it did not occur previously—as distinct from ‘reconstruction’. A typical example is the creation of a wetland where it did not previously occur.

Cultural ecosystem an ecosystem shaped to at least some extent by human utilization, to provide food, fibre, medicines and/or culturally important artefacts.

Cycling ecological cycles include the movement of resources such as water, carbon, nitrogen, and other elements that are fundamental to all other ecosystem functions.

Damage (to ecosystem) a substantial level of impact, generally from a single disturbance event such as a bulldozing event.

Degradation (of an ecosystem) a persistent decline in the structure, function and composition of an ecosystem compared to its former state, generally from frequent or persistent impacts.

Destruction (of an ecosystem) complete removal or depletion of an ecosystem.

Ecological maintenance ongoing activities (such as applying appropriate fire or hydrological regimes) intended to counteract processes of ecological degradation to sustain the attributes of an undegraded ecosystem or a restored ecosystem. The maintenance phase is distinguished from the restoration phase, where repeat treatments are usually termed Follow up. Higher ongoing ecological maintenance is likely to be required at restored sites where higher levels of threats continue, compared to sites where threats have been controlled. Both maintenance and restoration are included in the broad term ‘ecosystem management’.

Ecological restoration the process of assisting the recovery of a native ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. It differs from other ecosystem restoration activities along the Restorative Continuum in that it aims to recover a native ecosystem to the state it would exhibit in the absence of degradation, while accounting for environmental change. (Note: Single species restoration can be considered complementary and an important component of ecological restoration.)

Ecosystem small- or large-scale assemblage of biotic and abiotic components in oceans, rivers and on land in which the components interact to form complex food webs, nutrient cycles and energy flows. The term ‘ecosystem’; is used in the Standards to describe an ecological community of any size or scale.

Ecosystem attributes (see Attributes)

Ecosystem resilience the capacity of an ecosystem to resist, recover, or reorganise in response to disturbance or other environmental stressors. Native ecosystems vary in their ability to resist or recover from disturbance, largely dependent on variations in their component organisms’ biological resilience. When an ecosystem’s resistance and recovery are exceeded, ecosystems naturally reorganise into new states. The inherent resilient capacity of ecosystems is ultimately the foundation of ecological restoration. See also social-ecological resilience.

Ecosystem services the benefits to humans that are provided by ecosystems. They include the production of clean soil, water and air, the moderation of climate and disease, nutrient cycling and pollination, the provisioning of a range of goods useful to humans and potential for the satisfaction of aesthetic, recreation and other human values. Restoration targets may specifically refer to the reinstatement of particular ecosystem services.

External exchanges the two-way flows that occur between elements in the landscape or aquatic environment including flows of energy, water, fire, genetic material, animals and seeds. Exchanges are facilitated by habitat linkages.

Facilitated natural regeneration the approach and practice of fostering natural regeneration (in situ) and recolonisation after actively removing ecological impediments (e.g. invasive species, fish barriers, overabundant native species) and reinstating appropriate abiotic and biotic states (e.g. environmental flows, fire regimes). While generally this approach is typical of sites of low to intermediate degradation, even some very highly degraded sites have proven capable of natural recovery given appropriate treatment (including high levels of substrate engineering) and sufficient time frames. (Note: Assisted natural regeneration no longer recommended as a synonym – See Assisted Natural Regeneration which is a system of restoration focusing on regeneration approaches, but which can also include some reintroduction.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration a land restoration technique used in developing countries that focuses on facilitating recovery of native species from suppressed rootstocks and seed.

Five-star (5-star) recovery a semi-quantitative rating system based on biotic and abiotic factors that provides comparative assessment of how well the attributes of an ecosystem are recovering after treatment. (Note, it is not a rating of the restoration works but of the recovery outcomes.)

Follow up the repeated re-treatments required during the restoration phase to progressively improve natural regeneration. These are distinct from maintenance that is carried out after the restoration or recovery phase. The simple watering and weeding of plantings is usually referred to as ‘maintenance’ although another useful term is ‘aftercare’.

Framework species method (FSM) a technique for restoring forest ecosystems, particularly rainforests, by installing a ‘starter’ subset of species selected for their ability to attract dispersal of more species into the site. Similar approaches may be used in other ecosystems – e.g. marine – where colonisation rates can be high and a suite of fewer species can act as a framework to support the gradual accumulation of other species. 

Full recovery the state whereby all ecosystem attributes closely resemble those of the reference ecosystem. Further necessary intervention at that point would be classified as maintenance rather than restoration.

Full reintroduction a restoration approach where the appropriate biota need to be entirely or almost entirely reintroduced as they cannot regenerate or recolonise within feasible timeframes, even after expert facilitated regeneration interventions. Site earthworks may or may not be needed. An example of reconstruction is the mass revegetation of trees, shrubs and groundcovers on previously cropped agricultural lands (including mature successional phase species) or the complete rebuilding of a coral reef (including mature successional phase species).

Functions (of an ecosystem) the collective term for the roles and processes that arise from interactions among living and non-living components of ecosystems. Examples include nutrient cycling and sequestration (through biomass accumulation, food production, herbivory, predation and decomposition), water filtration and cycling, soil formation, succession, disturbance regimes (fire, flooding and drying), water filtration and storage, provision of habitat, predation, dispersal, pollination, reproduction, disturbance and resilience.

Gene flows transmissions of seed or pollen between individual organisms that maintains the genetic diversity of a species’ population. In nature, gene flow can be limited by dispersal distances of vectors and by topographic barriers such as mountains and rivers. In fragmented habitats it can be limited by the separation of remnants caused by clearing.

Germplasm the various regenerative materials (e.g. seeds, vegetative materials) that provide a source of genetic material for future populations.

Highest attainable extent the desired aspiration of ecological restoration which refers to whether the goals can be achieved within available means, time or current conditions

Inbreeding depression the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding (i.e. breeding of closely related individuals).

Indicators of recovery characteristics of an ecosystem that a manager identifies as being suitable for measuring the progress of restoration goals or objectives at a particular site (e.g. increasing numbers or cover of native species decline of non-native species).

Initiating native ecosystem recovery the point along the Restorative Continuum where recovery is at a low level and has potential for improvement but meets the minimum criteria for ecologically substantive recovery and thus ecological restoration. This level of recovery can also be considered as a subcategory of partial recovery.

Interested and affected parties any individual, group, or institution that has a vested interest in or can influence a project and/or that potentially will be affected by the project and has something to gain or lose if conditions change or stay the same. Interested parties are all those who need to be considered in achieving project goals and whose participation and support are crucial to its success. Previous synonym: stakeholders.

Landscape flows external exchanges that occur at a level larger than the site and include flows of energy, water, fire, genetic material, animals and seeds. Exchanges are facilitated by habitat linkages. The term ‘landscape’ and ‘landscape flows’ can also be applied to marine and freshwater ‘seascape’.

Local native ecosystem a self-organising  biological system comprising species or subspecies (excluding invasive non-native species) that are either known to have evolved locally or have recently migrated from neighbouring localities due to changing climates. Where local evidence is lacking, regional or historical information can help inform the most probable local native ecosystems. While many ecosystems we consider natural have been modified in extent and configuration (e.g. through burning by Indigenous Peoples).

Management (of an ecosystem) a broad categorisation that can include maintenance and repair of ecosystems (including ecosystem restoration).

Mandatory restoration reparatory actions required (mandated) by government, court of law or statutory authority. May include compensatory restoration including biodiversity offsets (i.e. restoration as compensation for damage to nature by plans or projects). Mandatory restoration may also include net gain restoration uncoupled from new or ongoing degradation.

Natural regeneration recovery or recruitment of organisms from in-situ propagules or propagules that have colonised a site. Natural regeneration from these propagules may (i) occur spontaneously after the removal of barriers alone, (ii) be facilitated by additional active interventions. and (iii) may occur in the longer term as a result of reproduction by  individual organisms reintroduced by humans.

Net gain (project level) a positive improvement from restoration’s contributions to biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and human wellbeing, using the degraded state as a baseline, and measured at appropriate temporal and spatial scales. Measurement of net gain should include intended as well as unintended consequences of restoration activities, within and outside the restoration site. Because net gain at the project level, by definition, is measured against the degraded baseline, it only applies to ecosystems that have been degraded (i.e. it is not appropriate to measure net gain of non-degraded ecosystems).

Net gain (system level) the net positive result from restoration at broad temporal and spatial scales, as compared to the pre-restoration baseline at the same scales, after all gains and losses have been accounted for as measured by improvements to biodiversity, ecosystem integrity, and human wellbeing. Often referred to as ‘natura positive’.

Non-mandatory restoration voluntary rather than required (mandated) by a government, regulatory authority or court of law.

Outbreeding depression when offspring from crosses between individuals from different populations (from a remnant parent and an introduced parent) have lower fitness than progeny from crosses between individuals from the same population.

Over-utilisation any form of harvesting or exploitation of an ecosystem beyond its capacity to regenerate those resources (including over-fishing, over-clearing, over-grazing, over-burning etc).

Partner any individual, group, or institution including governments and donors whose active participation and support are essential for the successful implementation of a project or program. See also interested and affected parties.

Primary treatment the first treatment of any part of a site (e.g. removal of standing weed biomass), after which there will be subsequent follow-up treatments, collectively referred to as ‘secondary treatments’. (‘Primary’ here does not imply importance).

Productivity the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem, contributed to by the growth and reproduction of plants and animals.

Provenance source (location) from which seed or other germplasm is derived.

Reallocation transformation to another land use other than conservation.

Reconstruction synonym sometimes used for full reintroduction, where all biota are reintroduced. Some see it as also implying physical rebuilding of the substrate.  

Recovery the process return of an ecosystem’s self-organising attributes through reassembly of its abiotic components and reassembly, growth and reproduction of its organisms, with or without human assistance. Degrees of recovery (partial or full) can be assessed against the levels of composition, structure and function identified for the reference model.

Recruitment production of a subsequent generation of organisms. This is measured not by numbers of new organisms alone (e.g. germinants of plants or birth of animal young) but by the number that establish to adulthood in the population.

Reference ecosystem the recognisable ecological community identified as the one to which the restoration will be directed.  While it is not necessarily the historical ecosystem, it ideally represents the ecosystem that would inhabit the restoration site had degradation, damage or destruction not occurred, adjusted to accommodate changed or predicted environmental conditions. Where current or predicted environmental conditions completely differ from those previously occurring, however, an alternative ecosystem may be identified to act as the reference.

Reference model a detailed model, developed from the identified reference ecosystem, that describes the expected state (in its characteristic form or forms and highest integrity condition with respect to flora, fauna and other biota, abiotic elements, functions, processes, and successional states) that the restored ecosystem would exhibit at full recovery. It provides a benchmark to inform design of the restoration project and against which the condition of the site is measured prior to, during, and after ecological restoration. Ideally, the reference model includes information from a suitable number of extant reference sites.

Reference site an undegraded or nearly undegraded extant site that can be used to inform the development of a reference model. In some cases, monitoring data from reference sites are used to formally compare data from the restoration site to evaluate progress of the recovery at the restoration site.

Reference state the highest integrity form and condition of the reference model that the ecosystem at the restoration site would exhibit in the absence of degradation.

Regeneration (see Natural regeneration)

Rehabilitation reinstates attributes of some physical properties (e.g. soils and water) and a level of ecosystem functioning on degraded or converted sites, along with a renewed or improved and ongoing provision of high quality and diverse ecosystem goods and services. Native biodiversity and ecosystem integrity are supported but actions do not achieve substantive recovery of a native ecosystem. An example would be a non-native carbon planting, a riparian nutrient filter or use of non- native invertebrates to decompose waste.

Reinforcement increasing a genetically limited plant or animal population, whether of a threatened or common species, to increase its potential for long term conservation at a site.

Reintroduction an approach to the returning of missing species to an ecosystem through human agency, whether by direct seeding, planting, translocation or release.

Resilience see ecosystem resilience, biological resilience and social-ecological resilience.

Restoration (see also Ecological restoration). The term ‘restoration’ is in common usage and can be used singly and in combination with other words to convey an intent to return something to a prior condition (e.g. restoring a species, a population or a particular ecosystem function such as carbon sequestration). Single species restoration can be considered complementary and an important component of ecological restoration.

Restoration project a planned, monitored and implemented effort to achieve recovery of an ecosystem, as distinct from a ‘restoration program’ that usually includes more than one project. The term ‘project’ is not used in this document to refer to a specific limited set of works confined to a contract or funding round but is used to describe a holistic set of works in defined area over time to attain ecosystem recovery.

Restorative Continuum a conceptual framework that links the full spectrum of environmental improvement activities carried out across our terrestrial and aquatic environments (from reducing societal causal factors of degradation, through improving ecosystem functionality in amenity and production environments) to ecological restoration.

Revegetation establishment, by any means, of plants on sites (including terrestrial, freshwater and marine areas) that may or may not involve local or native species.

Rewilding a methodology geared to increasing biodiversity and restoring ecosystem integrity by focusing on assisting natural processes supported by planned reintroduction or reinforcement of animal or plant species (especially keystone species or apex predators) into habitats from which they have disappeared or been depleted.

Secondary treatment repeated follow-up treatments, e.g. to control invasive species, required during the restoration phase after primary treatment has triggered an ecological response.

Seed production area (SPA) a site used for the production of bulk quantities of high quality seed of known origin, quality, free of any undesirable hybridity and with appropriate genetic diversity for replanting or direct seeding onto restoration and rehabilitation sites.

Self-organising (full) a state whereby all the necessary elements are present and the ecosystem’s attributes can continue to develop towards the reference state without outside assistance. Self-organisation develops gradually over time and is evidenced by factors such as growth, reproduction, ratios between producers, herbivores, and predators and niche differentiation. In restoration the degree self-organising capacity is partial or full is measured relative to characteristics described in the reference model.

Site discrete area/location. Can occur at different scales including patch and larger scales (e.g. landscapes or aquatic environments).

Social-ecological systems complex, integrated, and linked systems of people and nature, at varying spatial scales. This term, commonly used in connection with social-ecological resilience, emphasises that humans are a part of nature and part of ecosystems.

Spatial mosaic patchiness in assemblages of species often reflecting spatial patterning (in vertical and/or horizontal plane) due to differences in substrate, topography, hydrology disturbance regimes.

Spatial patterning (see Spatial mosaic.)

Spontaneous regeneration a form of natural regeneration or recruitment of species that occurs without human assistance other than the removal of the original degradation driver. Also used to describe the restoration approach that allows this form of natural regeneration to occur.

Stakeholders see interested and affected parties.

Stratum, strata layer or layers in an ecosystem; often referring to vertical layering such as trees, shrubs and herbaceous layers.

Structure (of an ecosystem) the physical organisation of an ecological system both within communities and at a larger scale (e.g. density, stratification, and distribution of species populations, habitat size and complexity, canopy structure, pattern of habitat patches).

Substantive recovery the state where recovery is at least at a low level (e.g. star level one for all six attributes) and has potential for improvement to higher levels. This level of recovery can also be considered as a subcategory of partial recovery.

Substrate the soil, sand, rock, debris or water medium where ecosystems develop.

Succession (ecological) patterns of change and replacement occurring within and between ecosystems over time in response to disturbance or its absence. Some Australian ecosystems (including higher diversity heath communities) respond to disturbance with all species regenerating together from the outset, whereas others can assemble gradually over time.

Threat a factor potentially or already causing degradation, damage or destruction.

Threshold (ecological) a point at which a small change in environmental conditions causes a shift in an ecosystem property to a different ecological state. Once a threshold is crossed, an ecosystem may not easily return to its previous state.

Trajectory (ecological) a pathway of development over time, which can be defined and monitored using sequential measurements of biotic and abiotic ecological parameters.

Transformed shifted to a different ecosystem. In this Standard, specifically referring to a production ecosystem or urban ecosystem.

Translocation the movement of organisms from one part of the landscape or aquatic environment to another, sometimes including translocation of topsoils containing live seed and other organisms.

Treatment interventions or actions undertaken to achieve recovery, such as substrate amendment, invasives control, biomass reduction, habitat conditioning, reintroductions.

Trophic levels hierarchical categorisation of organisms within ecosystems depending on their position in the food chain or food web. Levels include producers, consumers, predators, and decomposers, which represent the transfer of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.

Undesirable species includes nonnative species (except in some cases where they may provide irreplaceable or temporary support for native biodiversity and ecosystem recovery), as well as native species that may be overabundant or otherwise considered to be out of place.